Toledo School of Translators and their Influence on Anatomical Terminology
Keywords:
Arabic medicine, Christian Latin medicine, Islamic golden age medicine, Medieval anatomy, Nomina Anatomica, Terminologia anatomica
Abstract
Translation facilitates the transmission of knowledge between cultures. The fundamental transfer of anatomical terminology from Ancient Greek and Golden Age cultures from Islam to medieval Latin Christianity took place in the so-called Toledo School of Translators during the 12th and 13th centuries. The translations made in Toledo circulated widely throughout Europe. They were the basis of scientific thought that was born in the cloisters of the first universities. In Toledo, Gerard de Cremona translated Avicenna's Canon of Medicine, the key work of medicine from the Golden Age of Islam. Alberto Magno, Mondino de Luzzi, and Guy de Chauliac, the main authors of Latin anatomical words in the Middle Ages, based their books on Gerard's translations. The anatomical terms of the Canon preserve auctoritas until the Renaissance. Thus, terms coined by Gerard such as diaphragm, orbit, pupil or sagittal are still relevant in current official anatomical terminology. The objective of this article is to draw attention to the important influence that the Toledo School of Translators had on anatomical terminology. To do this, we will review here the onomastic origins of a series of anatomical terms that are still in force.
References
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Kabrt, J (1962). «Arabic medicine and its effect on the development of medical terminology». Casopis lekaru ceskych 101: pp. 1021-1023.
Kachlik, David; Baca, Vaclav; Bozdechova, Ivana; Cech, Pavel y Musil, Vladimir (2008). «Anatomical terminology and nomenclature: past, present and highlights». Surg Radiol Anat 30, no. 6: pp. 459-466.
Kachlik, David; Bozdechova, Ivana; Cech, Pavel; Musil, Vladimir y Baca, Vaclav (2009). «Mistakes in the usage of anatomical terminology in clinical practice». Biomed Pap Med Fac Univ Palacky Olomouc Czech Repub 153, no. 2: pp. 157-161.
Krmpotić-Nemanić, Jelena y Vinter, Ivan (2003). «Incorrect medical terms in terminologia anatomica». Ann Anat 185, no. 2: pp. 195-196.
Laín Entralgo, Pedro (1978). Historia de la medicina, Barcelona (España): Salvat.
Lemay, Richard (1978). Gerard of Cremona, in Dictionary of Scientific Biography, ed., Gillispie, New York.: Charles Scribner’s Sons, pp. 173-192.
López-Piñero, José Maria (2002). La Medicina en la Historia, Madrid (España): La Esfera de los Libros.
Marecková, Elena; Simon, Frantisěk y Cervený, Lalislav (2001). «On the new anatomical nomenclature». Ann Anat 183, no. 3: pp. 201-207.
Menendez-Pelayo, Marcelino (2006). Historia de los heterodoxos españoles, Barcelona (España): Linkgua Digital.
Menendez-Pelayo, Ramón (1977). España, eslabón entre la Cristiandad y el Islam, Madrid (España): Espasa-Calpe.
Mosenthal, William T. (2001). «Etymology-anatomy-history-culture». Clin Anat 14, no. 1: pp. 92.
Naderi, Sait; Acar, Feridun; Mertol, Tansu. y Arda, Mertol Nuri (2003) «Functional anatomy of the spine by Avicenna in his eleventh century treatise Al-Qanun fi al-Tibb (The Canons of Medicine)». Neurosurgery 52, no. 6: pp. 1449-1453; discussion 1453-1454.
Navarro, Fernando A. y Zárate, José Ramón (2012). Laboratorio del lenguaje. Medicablogs, Spain [Internet]. _http://medicablogs.diariomedico.com/laboratorio/2012/02/01/pupila/_ [consultado 27 July 2014].
Paluzzi, Alessandro; Fernandez-Miranda, Juan; Torrenti, Matthew y Gardner, Paul (2012). «Retracing the etymology of terms in neuroanatomy». Clin Anat 25, no. 8: pp. 1005-1014.
Panourias, Ioannis. G; Stranjalis, George; Stavrinou, Lampis C. y Sakas, Damianos E. (2011). «The Hellenic and Hippocratic origins of the spinal terminology». J Hist Neurosci 20, no. 3: pp. 177-87.
Pines, J (1962). «The Jewish contribution to Arabic medicine in the Middle Ages». Le Scalpel 115: pp. 207-218.
Ricordel, Joëlle (1998). «Medical sciences in the ommeyyade's time in Cordoue». Rev Hist Pharm (Paris) 45, no. 317: pp. 29-40.
Rosse, Cornelius (2001). «Terminologia anatomica: considered from the perspective of next-generation knowledge sources». Clin Anat 14, no. 2: pp. 120-133.
Sakai, Tatsuo (2007). «Historical evolution of anatomical terminology from ancient to modern». Anat Sci Int 82, no. 2: pp. 65-81.
Schipperges, Heinrich (1966). «Anatomy in the arabic culture». Med Monatsschr 20, no. 2: pp. 67-73.
Schipperges, Heinrich (1976). Arabische Medizin im lateinischen Mittelalter, Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
Schreger, Christian; Schreger, Henri y Schreger, Théodore (1803). Synonymia anatomica, Fürth (Germany): Bureau par Literatur.
Shoja, Mohammadali M. y Tubbs, R. Shane (2007). «The history of anatomy in Persia». J Anat 210, no. 4: pp. 359-378.
Shoja, Mohammadali M; Tubbs, R. Shane; Loukas, Marios; Khalili, Majid; Alakbarli, Farid y Cohen-Gadol, Aaron. A. (2009). «Vasovagal syncope in the Canon of Avicenna: the first mention of carotid artery hypersensitivity». Int J Cardiol 134, no. 3: pp. 297-301.
Siraisi, Nancy G (1987). Avicenna in Renaissance Italy: The Canon and medical teaching in Italian universities after 1500, Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Solassol, A. (1989). «Arabic medicine and anatomy». Surg Radiol Anat 11, no. 1: pp. 1-2.
Spielmann, J. (1986). «Discovery of the lesser circulation». Orv Hetil 127, no. 26: pp. 1585-1588.
Thorndike, Lynn (1958). A history of magic and experimental science, Columbia: Columbia University Press.
Tubbs, R. Shane; Shoja, Mohammadali M; Loukas, Marios y Oakes, W. Jerry (2007). «Abubakr Muhammad Ibn Zakaria Razi, Rhazes (865-925 AD)». Childs Nerv Syst 23, no. 11: pp. 1225-1226.
Turmezei, Tom D. (2012). «The linguistic roots of Modern English anatomical terminology». Clin Anat 25, no. 8: pp. 1015-1022.
Unal, Nedim y Elcioglu, Omur (2009). «Anatomy of the eye from the view of Ibn Al-Haitham (965-1039). The founder of modern optics». Saudi Med J 30, no. 3: pp. 323-328.
Valle-Inclán, Carlos (1949). «El léxico anatómico de Bernardino Montaña de Monserrate y de Juan de Valverde». Asclepio 1: pp. 121-188.
Vatle, A. (1991). «Medical assimilation processes in the middle ages. From Gundishapur to Toledo». Tidsskr Nor Laegeforen 111, no. 30: pp. 3657-3662.
Vegas-Gonzalez, Serafín (1998). La escuela de traductores de Toledo en la historia del pensamiento, Toledo (España): Ayuntamiento de Toledo.
Zargaran, Arman; Zarshenas, Mohammad M; Ahmadi, Seyedeh Aida y Vessal, Karim (2013). «Haly Abbas (949–982 AD)». Journal of Neurology 260, no. 8: pp. 2196-2197.
Arráez-Aybar, Luis-Alfonso (2006). «Anatomy in the pages of Don Quixote». Interciencia 31, no. 9: pp. 690-694.
Arráez-Aybar, Luis-Alfonso (2012) «La transmisión de los saberes médicos durante la Edad Media. Una aproximación conceptual». Beresit: Revista Interdiciplinar científico-humana 10: pp. 109-127.
Arráez-Aybar, Luis-Alfonso; González-Lorrio, Francisco; Marantos-Gamarra, Dimitri; Jiménez-Collado, Juan (2003). «Cardiac developmental onomatology: the real heart of the matter». Ann.Anat. 185: pp. 525–533.
Barcia-Goyanes, Juan José (1978). Onomatologia anatomica nova: historia del lenguaje anatómico. Valencia: Universidad de Valencia, Secretariado de Publicaciones.
Barcia-Goyanes, Juan José (1982). «Dos bizarros nombres del apéndice xifoides:” cartílago epliglotis y gheroni». Dynamis: Acta Hispanica ad Medicinae Scientiarumque. Historiam Illustrandam 2: pp. 353-356.
Barcia-Goyanes, Juan José (1983). «Los nombres de la pupila». Medicina Española. 82: pp. 90-95.
Barcia-Goyanes, Juan José (1984). «Los arabismos en las ediciones latinas del Libro I del Colliget de Averroes». Medicina Española. 83: pp. 9-29.
Bujalkova, Maria (2011). «Rufus of Ephesus and his contribution to the development of anatomical nomenclature». Acta Med Hist Adriat 9, no. 1: pp. 89-100.
Burnett, Charles (1997). The introduction of Arabic learning into England, London: British Library.
Campos, Luis (1997) Diccionario médico etimológico Esteve de anatomía humana, Barcelona: Prous Science.
Clagett, Marshall (1955). Greek Science in Antiquity, New York: Abelard Schuman.
Collins, Roger (2008). Visigothic Spain 409-711, Oxford: John Wiley & Sons.
Connolly, Peter y Dodge, Hazel (1998). The ancient city: life in classical Athens & Rome, Oxford, NY: Oxford University Press.
de Koning, Pieter (1903). Trois traité’s d’anatomie arabes par Muhammed ibn Zakariya al-Râzi, Ali ibn Abbas et Ali ibn Sina, Leyden: E.J. Brill.
de Vaan, Michiel (2008). Etymological Dictionary of Latin and the other Italic Languages, Leiden & Boston: Brill.
Dirckx, John. H. (2004). «Dermatologic terms in the onomasticon of Julius Pollux». Am J Dermatopathol 26, no. 6: pp. 511-513.
Donaldson, I. M. (2011). «The Cyrurgia of Albucasis and other works, 1500». J R Coll Physicians Edinb 41, no. 1: pp 85-88.
FCAT, 1998. Federative Committee on Anatomical Terminology: Terminología Anatomica. Stuttgart: Thieme.
Fonahn, Adolf Mauritz (1922) Arabic and Latin anatomical terminology, chiefly from the middle ages, Kristiania (now Oslo): In commission by J. Dybwad.
García-Ballester, Luis (1982). «Arnau de Vilanova (c. 1240-1311) y la reforma de los estudios médicos en Montpellier (1309): el Hipócrates latino y la introducción del nuevo
Galeno». Dynamis: Acta Hispanica ad Medicinae Scientiarumque. Historiam Illustrandam 2: pp. 097-158.
Garcia-Bravo, Paloma (2004). «Las traducciones en la transmisión del legado médico clásico al mundo occidental». Hieronymus complutensis: el mundo de la traducción 11: pp 25-42.
Gesundheit, Benajmin y Hadad, Eli (2005). «Maimonides (1138-1204): rabbi, physician and philosopher». Isr Med Assoc J 7, no. 9: pp. 547-553.
Golzari, Samad Ej; Mirinejad, Mir Mousa; Kazemi, Abolhassan; Khalili, Majid y Ghabili, Kamyar (2012). «Avenzoar (1092–1162 AD) and Averroes (1126–1198 AD): Andalusian Muslim Physicians». World Journal of Surgery 36: 2537-2538.
Habbi, Joseph (1994). «The role of Hunayn, physician and translator». Med Secoli 6, no. 2: pp. 293-308.
Haller, Albrecht Von (1774). Bibliotheca Anatomica, Zurich: Orell, Gessner, Fussli & Co.
Hellemans, Alexander y Bunch, Bryan H (1988). The timetables of science: a chronology of the most important people and event s in the history of science, New York: Simon and Schuster.
Hyrtl, Joseph (1880). Onomatologia anatomica: Geschichte und Kritik der anatomischen Sprache der Gegenwart, mit besonderer Berücksichtigung ihrer Barbarismen, Widersinnigkeiten, Tropen, und grammatikalischen Fehler, Wien: Wilhelm Braumuller.
Kabrt, J (1962). «Arabic medicine and its effect on the development of medical terminology». Casopis lekaru ceskych 101: pp. 1021-1023.
Kachlik, David; Baca, Vaclav; Bozdechova, Ivana; Cech, Pavel y Musil, Vladimir (2008). «Anatomical terminology and nomenclature: past, present and highlights». Surg Radiol Anat 30, no. 6: pp. 459-466.
Kachlik, David; Bozdechova, Ivana; Cech, Pavel; Musil, Vladimir y Baca, Vaclav (2009). «Mistakes in the usage of anatomical terminology in clinical practice». Biomed Pap Med Fac Univ Palacky Olomouc Czech Repub 153, no. 2: pp. 157-161.
Krmpotić-Nemanić, Jelena y Vinter, Ivan (2003). «Incorrect medical terms in terminologia anatomica». Ann Anat 185, no. 2: pp. 195-196.
Laín Entralgo, Pedro (1978). Historia de la medicina, Barcelona (España): Salvat.
Lemay, Richard (1978). Gerard of Cremona, in Dictionary of Scientific Biography, ed., Gillispie, New York.: Charles Scribner’s Sons, pp. 173-192.
López-Piñero, José Maria (2002). La Medicina en la Historia, Madrid (España): La Esfera de los Libros.
Marecková, Elena; Simon, Frantisěk y Cervený, Lalislav (2001). «On the new anatomical nomenclature». Ann Anat 183, no. 3: pp. 201-207.
Menendez-Pelayo, Marcelino (2006). Historia de los heterodoxos españoles, Barcelona (España): Linkgua Digital.
Menendez-Pelayo, Ramón (1977). España, eslabón entre la Cristiandad y el Islam, Madrid (España): Espasa-Calpe.
Mosenthal, William T. (2001). «Etymology-anatomy-history-culture». Clin Anat 14, no. 1: pp. 92.
Naderi, Sait; Acar, Feridun; Mertol, Tansu. y Arda, Mertol Nuri (2003) «Functional anatomy of the spine by Avicenna in his eleventh century treatise Al-Qanun fi al-Tibb (The Canons of Medicine)». Neurosurgery 52, no. 6: pp. 1449-1453; discussion 1453-1454.
Navarro, Fernando A. y Zárate, José Ramón (2012). Laboratorio del lenguaje. Medicablogs, Spain [Internet]. _http://medicablogs.diariomedico.com/laboratorio/2012/02/01/pupila/_ [consultado 27 July 2014].
Paluzzi, Alessandro; Fernandez-Miranda, Juan; Torrenti, Matthew y Gardner, Paul (2012). «Retracing the etymology of terms in neuroanatomy». Clin Anat 25, no. 8: pp. 1005-1014.
Panourias, Ioannis. G; Stranjalis, George; Stavrinou, Lampis C. y Sakas, Damianos E. (2011). «The Hellenic and Hippocratic origins of the spinal terminology». J Hist Neurosci 20, no. 3: pp. 177-87.
Pines, J (1962). «The Jewish contribution to Arabic medicine in the Middle Ages». Le Scalpel 115: pp. 207-218.
Ricordel, Joëlle (1998). «Medical sciences in the ommeyyade's time in Cordoue». Rev Hist Pharm (Paris) 45, no. 317: pp. 29-40.
Rosse, Cornelius (2001). «Terminologia anatomica: considered from the perspective of next-generation knowledge sources». Clin Anat 14, no. 2: pp. 120-133.
Sakai, Tatsuo (2007). «Historical evolution of anatomical terminology from ancient to modern». Anat Sci Int 82, no. 2: pp. 65-81.
Schipperges, Heinrich (1966). «Anatomy in the arabic culture». Med Monatsschr 20, no. 2: pp. 67-73.
Schipperges, Heinrich (1976). Arabische Medizin im lateinischen Mittelalter, Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
Schreger, Christian; Schreger, Henri y Schreger, Théodore (1803). Synonymia anatomica, Fürth (Germany): Bureau par Literatur.
Shoja, Mohammadali M. y Tubbs, R. Shane (2007). «The history of anatomy in Persia». J Anat 210, no. 4: pp. 359-378.
Shoja, Mohammadali M; Tubbs, R. Shane; Loukas, Marios; Khalili, Majid; Alakbarli, Farid y Cohen-Gadol, Aaron. A. (2009). «Vasovagal syncope in the Canon of Avicenna: the first mention of carotid artery hypersensitivity». Int J Cardiol 134, no. 3: pp. 297-301.
Siraisi, Nancy G (1987). Avicenna in Renaissance Italy: The Canon and medical teaching in Italian universities after 1500, Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Solassol, A. (1989). «Arabic medicine and anatomy». Surg Radiol Anat 11, no. 1: pp. 1-2.
Spielmann, J. (1986). «Discovery of the lesser circulation». Orv Hetil 127, no. 26: pp. 1585-1588.
Thorndike, Lynn (1958). A history of magic and experimental science, Columbia: Columbia University Press.
Tubbs, R. Shane; Shoja, Mohammadali M; Loukas, Marios y Oakes, W. Jerry (2007). «Abubakr Muhammad Ibn Zakaria Razi, Rhazes (865-925 AD)». Childs Nerv Syst 23, no. 11: pp. 1225-1226.
Turmezei, Tom D. (2012). «The linguistic roots of Modern English anatomical terminology». Clin Anat 25, no. 8: pp. 1015-1022.
Unal, Nedim y Elcioglu, Omur (2009). «Anatomy of the eye from the view of Ibn Al-Haitham (965-1039). The founder of modern optics». Saudi Med J 30, no. 3: pp. 323-328.
Valle-Inclán, Carlos (1949). «El léxico anatómico de Bernardino Montaña de Monserrate y de Juan de Valverde». Asclepio 1: pp. 121-188.
Vatle, A. (1991). «Medical assimilation processes in the middle ages. From Gundishapur to Toledo». Tidsskr Nor Laegeforen 111, no. 30: pp. 3657-3662.
Vegas-Gonzalez, Serafín (1998). La escuela de traductores de Toledo en la historia del pensamiento, Toledo (España): Ayuntamiento de Toledo.
Zargaran, Arman; Zarshenas, Mohammad M; Ahmadi, Seyedeh Aida y Vessal, Karim (2013). «Haly Abbas (949–982 AD)». Journal of Neurology 260, no. 8: pp. 2196-2197.
Published
2021-12-31
How to Cite
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Arráez-Aybar, L.A., Bueno-López, J.-L. and Raio, N. 2021. Toledo School of Translators and their Influence on Anatomical Terminology. Disputatio. 10, 19 (Dec. 2021), 47-85.
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